Item gefilterd op datum: december 2012

Ontology

Positivism: Reality is separate from individual who observes it. Positivistic ontology is considereddualistic in nature.
Interpretivism: reality and individual who observes it cannot be separated.
Author: even if the differences were true, they both strive the same goals.

Epistemology

Positivism: try to build knowledge that existst beyond the human mind.
Interpretivism: recognize that the knowledge they build reflects their particular goals, culture, experience, history etc. knowledge is built through social construction of the world. Research object
Positivism: believe that objects they research have qualities that exist independent of the researcher. Interpretivism: believe that qualities they ascribe to objects they research are socially constucted - >products of their life-worlds.
Author: both positivists and interpretivists understand that the research processess they use, and the objects they research are inextricably related.

Research method

Positivism: tend to use laboratory experiments, field experiments and surveys. They seek large amounts of empirical data that they can analyze statistically to detect underlying regularities. Interpretivism: tend to use case studies, ethnographic studies, phenomenographic studies andethnomethodological studies.

Truth

Positivism: believe that a statement made by a researcher is true when it has a one-to-one mapping to the reality that exists beyond human mind.
Interpretivism: truth whereby researcher’s initial interpretation of some phenomenon conforms to the meaning given to the phenomenon thru the researcher’s lived experience of it. (als de onderzoeker zijn eerste interpretatie van een verschijnsel overeenkomt met de betekenis gegeven aan dit verschijnsel door de onderzoeker zijn werkelijke beleving ervan. Validity
Positivism: strive to collect date that are true measures of reality.
Interpretivism: Are concerned that their claims about knowledge they have acquired via their research are defensible.

Reliability

Positivism: Results are reliable if results can be reproduced.
Interpretivism: Reliable if researchers recognize and address implications of their subjectivity (interpretive awareness)

Real differences between pos. & int.

• choice of research methods

Why does rhetoric exist?

• differences are shallow rather than deep.

Conclusions

Verschillen tussen benaderingen zo erg benadrukken promoot volgens de schrijver vooroordelen over de benaderingen.

• Ookal zijn de verschillen waar, ze hebben volgens de schrijver weinig invloed op de kwaliteit van onderzoeken.
• We moeten de verschillen begrijpen, maar het moet ons niet scheiden.
• Nieuwe retoriek ontwikkelen

Different gender styles of comcation:

• Giving feedback
• Apologies ( Men often avoid apologies )
• getting credit (choice of pronoun) ( women give more credit to others than men)
• confidence and boasting (women are disadvantaged -> women are more likely to downsize their certainty and men are more likely to minimize their doubts.)
• asking questions (men are more hesitant to ask questions than women. They realize it puts them in a place of dependency. )
• Compliments (especially women)
• ritual opposition ( a ritual common among men that women often take literally)

‘inverted Christmastree-structure’:
* Persepectives toward conflict (orientations toward conflicts)
* Personal constructs (fairness, trust, power)
* Message strategies (threats, promises, use of time)

2 conclusies over cultuur en economische groei:

• Door toenemende economische ontwikkelingen ontstaan er culturele patronen die steeds positiever zijn over democratie, waardoor het grote publiek ook liever democratie wilt en meer vaardig is in het verkrijgen hiervan.
• Welvaart alleen brengt geen democratie. Modernisatie brengt vaak culturele veranderingen met zich mee die kunnen bijdragen aan democratie.
• in de toekomst zal de enige manier om de vraag naar democratie te negeren is om industrialisatie te verbieden.
• cultuur speelt een veel grotere rol in democratie dan de literatuur van de afgelopen twee decennia deed denken.
• Democratie wordt niet verkregen door institutionele veranderingen door te voeren, maar het moet ook tot stand komen door waarden en geloof van burgers.

Oost-europa - > autonomie, conservatief,

Individualism-collectivism refers to the social connectedness among individuals.

A common misconception is that collectivism is synonymous with communitarianism and that all collectivists are harmonious and homogeneous.

advantages and disadvantages of working with dimensions of cultural variability
- Surveys are not the best way to research culture
- Nations are not the best units to study culture
- subsidiaries are not representional of national culture
- data are old and obsolete
- 4/5 dimensions not enough

various theoretical perspectives on communication from constructivist, coordinated management of meaning, to functional (dimensions of variability) to effective outcomes;

Constructivist theory: communication occurs when when individuals have a mutually recognized interaction to share messages. This process is goal driven end individuals do what they think will help them accomplish their goals. Culture defines the logic of communication. Intercultural comcation should focus on developing flexiblen and integrative strategic means for accomplishing goals.

Integrate culture into coordinated management of meaning theory: CMM seeks to understand who we are, what it menas to live a life and how that is related to particular instances of comcation.
CMM seeks to render cultures comparable while acknowledging their incommensurability.
CMM seeks to generate an illuminating critique of cultural practices, including the researchers own.
CMM is used to analyze rules that are used as social episodes.

Cultural communication: - > involves the negotiation of cultural codes through communal
conversations.

• Every communal conversation bears traces of culturally distinctive means and meanings of communicative conduct.
• Comcation is a heuristic and performative resource for performing the cultural function in the lives of individuals and communities.

Individualisme/collectivisme is de dimensie van culturele variabiliteit die het meest gebruikt wordt om communicatie tussen culturen uit te leggen.

Ingroups zijn groepen die belangrijk zijn voor hun leden en waarvoor leden opofferingen doen. Outgroups..

Hypothese: ‘’Next source of conflict will be cultural.’’

Waarom verwacht hij dat de volgende clash cultureel is?: ‘’Nation states’’ bljiven nog steeds de machtigst, maar de belangrijke conflicten van wereldpolitiek zullen plaatsvinden tussen landen en groepen van verschillende bevolkingen. De botsing van de bevolkingen zal de wereldpolitiek voornamelijk bezighouden.

Waarom clash?:
Because differences between civilizations is basic.
Because smaller world increases awareness about cultural differences.
Because nation-state has become weaker source of identity
Because awareness about differences is encouraged.

Kritiek hierop door Chan:

- Huntington denkt in termen van conflict, meer diplomatieke strategieën zijn mogelijk.
- Chan’s reasoning begins with the other
- Huntington is too western - > ethnocentric
- Cultures and civilizations do not exist as such